Peer Reviewed Articles for Music and the Brain

Abstruse

In the by decade, with the rapid evolution of cognitive neuroscience and brain role detection technology, the human relationship between music and encephalon has increasingly attracted the attention of neuroscientists. More than and more research shows that the influence of music on people is not only emotional; it has a positive effect on brain evolution and cognitive development. Different states of the brain understand music in different ways, stimulating specific areas of the left and right hemispheres of the brain to evoke specific "music memories", causing corresponding physiological changes. Music activities must be based on brain mechanisms and neural mechanisms to consummate, and the most bones mode of human encephalon and nervous system activity is communication and point transmission between cells. In this paper, nosotros explored the influence of music on the brain. We compared the differences in knowledge and memory within a group of students with various academic performances. Through the test of color memory, the length of response time is used as a cognitive ability calibration. The results showed that the experimental group performed improve, confirming that listening to music can take certain positive effect on cognitive power, specifically, improving memory. Listening to music could heighten the performance and reduce errors in the questions that the color of the word matched.

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Zhang, S. (2020) The Positive Influence of Music on the Human Brain. Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 10, 95-104. doi: 10.4236/jbbs.2020.101005.

one. Introduction

With the rapid development of cognitive neuroscience and neuroimaging technology, in that location are more and more researches focused on exploring the relationship betwixt music and its furnishings on the brain. Since music is fundamentally transmitted in the form of sound waves, its interaction with the brain waves has always been the center of many enquiry fields. Research shows that the influence of music on people is not only emotional; it has a positive effect on brain development and cognitive development. Different states of the brain understand music in different ways, stimulating specific areas of the brain, causing respective physiological furnishings. As a result, many researchers see music equally a potential therapeutic tool than a mere entertainment, for instance, the potential result of music therapy on Alzheimer's Disease, feet, and people with concentration deficiency. With more agreement of this research concentration, more therapeutic options could benefit a broader patient community past providing a higher living quality.

Previous research shows that music can stimulate the areas relating to motor, language, and cognitive functions simultaneously, and effectively better patients' cognitive and working retentiveness. At that place'southward also evidence showing that music training is closely continued to the stimulation of neurons and executive function of the prefrontal cortex. As a effect, nosotros seek to find out whether music training could effectively meliorate the participants' retentiveness function, subsequently improving their learning abilities. We will as well explore whether classical music could finer improve the participants' concentration and learning efficiency. In this report, nosotros performed two sets of experiment to test the connection betwixt music and memory function.

2. Music and Retentivity of Encephalon

2.1. Memory

Generally speaking, the processing of forming a memory involves encoding, storing, retaining, and subsequently recalling information and past experiences. Dating dorsum to 1904, a German evolutionary biologist Richard Semon put forward a theory, suggesting that Mneme is a fundamental organic plasticity that allows the preservation of feel; information technology is Mneme "which in the organic world links the by and present in a living bond" [1] [2]. He proposed the idea of engram, which refers to the change in the nervous arrangement, or the "retentivity trace" that preserves the furnishings of feel. He posited that a memory would leave a concrete trace in the brain; and the brain, when stimulated, would replay the memory. Semon's theory almost memory inspired many scientists, and it is profoundly reflected on the modern theories of memory. In 2012, by employing optogenetic technology, Susumu Tonegawa's lab at MIT first showed that an engram was existent [3]. The incident of a 27-year-sometime American Henry Molaison had his hippocampi removed as a ways to cure his seizures merely lost his power to make new memories led to the discovery that hippocampus is required to attain episodic memories. However, these detailed memories are not stored in the hippocampus, instead, are transferred to the brain cortex. In 2017, Tonewaga's lab has revealed the details of how engrams are made in the hippocampus and then uploaded for storage in the encephalon cortex [1]. Semon proposed his idea of engrams decades earlier researchers understood neural signals are sent by electronic impulses. Since then, researches has decoded much of the electrical signaling, and shown how learning and memory correspond to the strengthening of connections between private neurons.

2.ii. The Relationship between Retentiveness Differences and Music Grooming

Although almost studies that examined associations between music grooming and cerebral abilities had correlational designs, the prevailing bias is that music training causes improvements in cognition [4] [5]. In order to explore whether the differences in individual memory and personality are related to the acceptance of music, nosotros designed the post-obit experiments.

Participants were 8 students selected from an international high school in Mainland china. They were adolescents at a stage of rapid mental development through rigorous academic trainings. Participants were divided into four categories (Skilful, Off-white, Limited, and Weak) according to their school academic functioning differences. Through the test of color memory, the length of response fourth dimension is used equally a cognitive ability scale. Earlier the examination, equally a control grouping, nosotros analyzed the cerebral power and academic differences of the four groups of students; so let them accept the aforementioned music training, and one time once more measured the correlation between cognitive ability and bookish ability. The correlation results and analysis were given as followings (Figure 1 and Figure two).

Effigy i. Cerebral analysis before accepting music. (a) Assay of reaction time before accepting music; (b) Analysis of errors made earlier accepting music.

Figure 2. Cognitive analysis after accepting music. (a) Assay of reaction time later accepting music; (b) Assay of errors made after accepting music.

Both of the trials before and after students listening to music show a stiff, direct and positive relationship between the mean time of response and the academic performances of the participants (r² = 0.9118, r² = 0.9855). Students in the Good category has the shortest response time compare to other categories. The worse the academic performance, more often than not the more time the participants spend answering the questions. Similarly, both trials of before and after students listening to music evidence a straight and positive relationship between the mean errors and the bookish performances of the participants (r² = 0.5715, r^two = 0.8972). Students with better academic operation would make fewer errors, and students with worse academic performances would brand relatively more errors. Therefore, at that place is a positive correlation betwixt academic achievement and students' average reaction time and boilerplate error.

To effigy out whether music has influences on matched response fourth dimension and unmatched response time, paired t-tests are performed at α = 0.05 significance level. The zippo hypothesis is μ_dmatched = 0, and the alternative hypothesis is μ_dmatched > 0, where μ_dmatched is the difference in the mean of the matched median response time earlier and after listening to music. A paired t-examination is used, where t = ten_dmatched/(South_dmatched), x_dmatched = 10.88, South_dmatched = 79.36, n = 8. The resulting t value is 0.39 with degrees of freedom of vii. The p-value is 0.35. Since the p-value is bigger than the pregnant level (α = 0.05), the result failed to reject the aught hypothesis, thus there is no convincing evidence that listening to music could enhance the operation and reduce in errors in the questions that the colour of the give-and-take matched.

In addition to the matched questions, a paired t-exam is performed at α = 0.05 significance level to determine the significance of listening to music on unmatched question response. The zilch hypothesis is μ_dunmatched = 0, and the alternative hypothesis is μ_dunmatched > 0, where μ_dunmatched is the difference in the mean of the unmatched median response time before and later listening to music. A paired t-examination is used, where t = x_dunmatched/(Southward_dunmatched), ten_dunmatched = −36.38, S_dunmatched = 83.32, northward = 8. The resulting t value is −ane.23 with degrees of freedom of 7. The p-value is 0.87. Since the p-value is bigger than the pregnant level (α = 0.05), the result failed to reject the aught hypothesis, thus there is no convincing evidence that listening to music could enhance the performance and reduce errors in the questions that the colour of the word did not match.

two.3. Enhance Memory

As early equally the 1960s, Bulgarian Lozanov created the "implicit learning method". He believed that soothing and beautiful classical music tin can help ease emotional tension, improve concentration, and learn more efficiently [half-dozen]. Some scholars believe that musical stimuli generate additional information that interferes with attention, affecting people'south memory efficiency [vii]. In the by ten years, scientists take extensively explored the relationship betwixt music and memory.

For the molecular biological basis of music affecting retentiveness, researchers believe that music stimulation can change the secretion of some neurotransmitters and peptide hormones, thereby enhancing people'due south memory. Contempo studies have found that the secretion of vasopressin AVP (4 - 8) is significantly increased when the music is felt. It can significantly actuate the poly peptide kinase MAPK, which significantly increases the transcription level of the "immediate early gene" c-fos, while c-fos Information technology has a crucial influence on synaptic differentiation and learning and memory [4]. Wang Zengxian et al. (2004) institute that music enhances neuronal NMDA receptors and mRNA expression of NMDA receptors [7]; NMDA is one of the most critical proteins for long-term issue (LTP) induction, in the hippocampal neural pathway, NMDA receptors play an important part in the triggering of LTP [8].

iii. Music and Encephalon Plasticity

3.1. Encephalon Plasticity

Music, as an important class of artistic expression, has long been a function of art research. In recent years, with the rapid development of brain imaging technologies such equally upshot-related potential (ERP), electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), music has gradually been incorporated into cerebral neuroscience. Brain plasticity means that the brain can exist modified by the surroundings and experience, and has the power to shape the structure and role of the brain under the influence of the external environment and experience.

Animal experiments have institute that music tin can promote brain evolution in rats and mice, heighten nerve plasticity, and improve their spatial learning and memory. The auditory cortex NMDA receptor is a vital neural connective pathway in mammalian learning and memory processes, including humans. Subsequently listening to Mozart'southward "Big Piano Sonata", the expression of NMDA subunit NR2B protein in ii weeks quondam mice increased significantly, and the spatial memory ability increased accordingly. In addition, the improvement of memory power depends on the length of music stimulation time and is related to the up-regulation of NMDA receptor expression in hippocampal germination [8]. The University of California, Berkeley, Diamond, and others accept performed a series of well-known experiments in white mice. The results showed that the thickness of the gray matter of white rats in the living environment increased, and the proportion of the cortex in the whole brain increased, and each nervus cell increased by 15%. The study also found that white mice living in a rich environment were 25% more than continued than white mice in the normal environment, and they performed better in the examination. More importantly, Greenough also plant that when the adult mouse responds to a complex surround, the encephalon besides forms new synapses.

Related experiments have besides shown that after special training, encephalon-related cortical representations tin alter significantly. This shows that the cortical representation expanse of feeling, movement, language, cognition, etc. is not stock-still, only a dynamic construction. Experience or training can reorganize the fine structure of the representative area. This empirically dependent structural reorganization can be used to explain why people or animals learn certain intelligence and motor skills [9].

3.two. The Influence of Music on Brain Plasticity

As nosotros all know, music is the audio art that shapes the artistic image through sound. Whether information technology is the listening and feeling of diverse factors such as pitch, tone, rhythm, harmony and melody, or integrating these elements into a complete slice for operation. The auditory cortex in the private brain plays an important office in monitoring and recognizing, and thus involves circuitous brain activities such equally audio analysis, auditory retentivity, and auditory scene analysis [10] [11].

Christo Pantev's enquiry (1998) in Master University shows that musicians are particularly sensitive to piano sounds, mainly because their auditory cortical activity area is significantly enhanced when they hear piano sounds. Those who learn instrumental music before the age of 9 have the largest surface area of auditory cortex activeness, but ordinary people do non accept such significant changes [12]. Thomas Elbert (1995) of Konstanz University in Germany reported that the cortical region of the left-handed activity of cord players (boilerplate age 20 years) is larger than the average person, and the younger the learning instrument is, the more relevant. The area of the cortex is also larger. A comparative study of musicians and not-musicians by Schlaug et al. (1995) found that the left side of the musician's traverse is significantly larger than the correct side, and the traverse is the area in the human encephalon that processes auditory information. Although the left side of the non-musician cross is larger than the correct side, the departure is small-scale, but the difference betwixt musicians is twice that of non-musicians. Schlaug also found that musicians have an average cerebellum that is 5% larger than non-musicians. This shows that finger move for many years promotes additional nervus growth [xiii].

The brain is a special construction adult by human beings to adapt to the needs of survival. Its primary job is to collect data almost the internal and external environment of the body, and to process the information specifically to make decisions and responses that are suitable for the environment and for survival [14]. Music tin heighten the interrelationship betwixt EEG signals in each channel and build a network of encephalon functions, which can significantly improve the activity of the brain.

4. Clinical Written report of Music Therapy

Music therapy is a treatment method that enhances the concrete and mental health of individuals by using music activities as a medium of handling. "Music Therapy", which combines music, medicine and psychology, is a study of the part of music in human function and how to apply music to treat diseases. From a physiological analysis, music therapy is the effect of objective stimuli for central nervous arrangement stimulation. When external or internal factors stimulate the hypothalamic and other subcortical centers that are responsible for emotions, it volition crusade changes in the activity of the emotional nervous system [9].

Stroke is a persistent cerebral hemisphere or brainstem focal neurological deficit caused by acute cerebrovascular circulatory disorder. The domestic morbidity rate is near 30% to l% [15]. Modern medicine combines the concrete and psychological healing of patients. Studies have shown that the use of music therapy in combination with drug therapy has a significant effect on the treatment of senile low, schizophrenia and preoperative anxiety [sixteen]. Music therapy is divided into active and passive. Passive music therapy is also known equally perceptual music therapy; patients mainly listen advisedly, wholeheartedly into the music, and feel the dazzler of music; and active music therapy is that patients actively participate in music activities, such as singing, using musical instruments. At present, most of the music therapy uses VCD and Walkman, and most of the patients are passively listening. Music therapy for post-stroke low has been reported more and more in China, especially for the report of national atmospheric condition and regional differences, the application of unlike populations and the efficacy [12] [17] [xviii] [xix].

In the medical field, the results of music therapy in Communist china have been fully affirmed past the academic community. The most widely used neurological disorder in domestic music therapy is the sequela of stroke. The earlier study was Liu Mingjia, the second nursing dwelling of Qingdao Jinan Military Region, Medical Electrotherapy for the Treatment of 60 Cases of Cognitive Thrombosis [12]. Liu Yanping et al. used a combination of susceptibility music therapy and exercise therapy to treat patients with mail-stroke limb paralysis. It was institute that susceptibility music therapy combined with do therapy can meliorate limb paralysis and reduce muscle tone in stroke patients [3]. Jeong SH et al. showed for the first time that music listening in the early stages of a stroke could enhance cognitive recovery and prevent negative emotions. Cha, Y et al. (2014) investigate the effect of intensive gait preparation with rhythmic auditory stimulation on postural control and gait performance in individuals with chronic hemiparetic stroke [16].

Twenty patients with chronic hemiparetic stroke participated in this study. Subjects in the Rhythmic auditory stimulation grooming group (10 subjects) underwent intensive gait training with rhythmic auditory stimulation for a menstruation of 6 weeks (thirty min/day, v days/week), while those in the command group (ten subjects) underwent intensive gait preparation for the aforementioned duration. Ii clinical measures, Berg balance scale and stroke specific quality of life scale, and a two-demensional gait analysis system, were used as consequence measure. To provide rhythmic auditory stimulation during gait preparation, the MIDI Cuebase musical instrument digital interface program and a KM Role player version three.3 were utilized for this study. The results showed that intensive gait preparation with rhythmic auditory stimulation resulted in significant improvement in scores on the Berg rest scale, gait velocity, cadence, stride length and double support flow in affected side, and stroke specific quality of life scale compared with the control group after training.

Music therapy is a planned and purposeful treatment process guided past medical psychology and using music activities as the main trunk. The specifications of its handling methods, procedures, and content are still being explored and practiced. Music has a direct impact on the limbic system and brainstem structure through physical and physiological functions. Its tune can invigorate the spirit, stimulate thinking, stimulate normal behavior, improve the emergency response power of stroke patients, and enable the patient'southward original living ability to exist exerted [19].

v. Conclusion

Looking back at the past enquiry work, we strongly felt that the relationship between music and the brain has become a frontier field in the study of encephalon scientific discipline and music psychology [9]. Undoubtedly, the influence of music on the human brain tin be objectively determined by scientific means. Music training has outstanding effects on human encephalon evolution as well as cognitive and memory evolution. Music therapy tin can reduce the patient'south anxiety level, thereby improving mood and reducing the response to psychological depression. Information technology is widely used in the mod medical field to treat diseases such as stroke depression [twenty]. In addition, music training also shows significant effect on memory enhancement in a articulate molecular level. These studies have further deepened people's understanding of the value of music educational activity, and made music education bear witness more in the broader development of human development and man potential.

6. The Limitation and Future Work

In future research, the report should incorporate more participants, and groups of participants should be sampled from different schools. This would ensure to reduce the variability of the estimates made from the information collected in the experiment. Sampling from different schools would allow us to make inferences on a wider population.

Conflicts of Interest

The writer declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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